Использование союза «или»

Слово иногда может уточняться при помощи словосочетания с союзом «или», которое следует после определяемого слова.

Example: The husky, or sled dog, of the North is a hardy breed.

Значение слова “husky” – лайка, определяется словосочетанием "sled dog", которое уточняется при помощи союза «или».

1.Altitude, or the height above sea level, is a factor that determines climate.
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2.Vespers, or evening worship, can be heard at St. Matthew's Cathedral.

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3.In some American Indian tribes, the squaw, or woman, was the owner of all property.
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4.The central nervous system of grasshoppers, fruit flies, and other insects includes both the brain and a chain of simpler segmental ganglia, or groups of nerve cells.
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5.Claustrophobia, or the fear of being enclosed, is more common than many people realize.
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Использование примеров

Слово может быть определено по средством примеров, на которые указывают такие слова, как:

as for example
such as
like
for instance

Example: Percussion instruments, such as drums, cymbals, and tambourines, were the preferred instruments in the study.

Значение понятия "percussion instruments" уточняется тремя примерами этой группы инструментом: "drums", "cymbals" and "tambourines."

6.Such large fish as groupers and moray eels recognize the wrasse as a friend that will help them.
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7.Creatures such as the camel and the penguin are so highly specialized that they can only live in certain areas of the world.
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8.The sand absorbs enough moisture to support drought-resistant plants such as mesquite, as well as several species of grasses.
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9. Camping paraphernalia suсh as tents, sleeping bags, and cooking equipment can range from very simple to quire complex
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10. Much can be done to halt the process of desertification. For example, an asphaltlike petroleum can be sprayed onto sand dunes, and seeds of trees and shrubs can then be
planted. The oil stabilizes the sand and retains moistuire, allowing vegetation to become established.
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Использование слов-указателей.

Подобные предложения обычно начинаются со следующих слов:

that where
who
when
which
whom

Example: Airships, which are cigar-shaped, steerable balloons, have many uses, such as filming advertising, and entertainment

Значение слова «airships» определяется уточняющим предложением "which are cigar-shaped, steerafale balloons "

11.Recent tests show that silver sulfadiazme which is a compound used in the treatment of burns can cure the most serious types of African sleeping sickness.
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12. The kiva where Pueblo Indians hold their secret ceremonies, is entered by an opening m the roof
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13.Melody, which is the succession of sounds, takes on new interest when fit into a rhythmic pattern.
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14.Nonlethal techniques, those that do not kill coyotes, are being developed to protect sheep and other livestock.
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15. The "O" m many Irish names tomes from the Gaelic word ua, which means "descended from ".
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Использование слов/словосочетаний-контрастов (антонимов)

Иногда значение слов может быть извлечено из слов/словосочетаний, которые указывают на противоположное значение этого слова. Индикатором этого служат следующие вводные контструкции:

but in contrast or
despite in spite of unlike
however instead whereas

Example: The brief scenes in the movie focus on the boy's point of view, whereas the longer scenes depict the father's side.

Предполагается, что “Brief scenes” имеют противоположное значение «longer scenes».

16. The bite of a garter snake, unlike that of the deadly cobra, is benign.
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17. The bluebonnet, the Texas state flower, thrives in dry, poor soil but dies in overly
wet conditions.
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18. Despite proposed cutbacks in financial support for domestic students, assistance for foreign students studying and training in the United States is to be sharply increased.
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19. Unlike her gregarious sister, Jane is a shy, unsociable person who does not like to go to parties.
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20. At the Indian Reservation Trading Post, tourists can buy trinkets or they can buy expensive handmade items.
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В наших следующих публикациях мы обратимся к отработке навыков понимания текста, вычленения основных идей.

Продолжение следует!